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LEAN RETAILING & THE APPAREL AND TEXTILES INDUSTRY
"Ratcheting Up: Linked Technology Adoption in Supply Chains," by Margaret Hwang Smith and David Weil, to appear in an upcoming issue of Industrial Relations, published by the University of California at Berkeley. It is generally assumed that a firm will adopt complementary technologies simultaneously. Apparel industry data indicate that, because of the close links between suppliers and retailers, there was a ratchet-up adoption of complementary information technologies. The consequence was that a rapid regime shift occurred without explicit coordination or planning. One implication is that the study of technology adoption may need to be more widely conceptualized to incorporate the relationships between upstream manufacturers and downstream retailers.
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"Retailing and Supply Chains in the Information Age.," by Frederick H. Abernathy, John T. Dunlop, Janice H. Hammond, and David Weil, appeared in Technology in Society, v.22(1), 2000, pp. 5-31. This article describes how information technologies have reconfigured retailing and in turn the operation of a core US manufacturing industry, apparel. "Lean retailers" exchange point-of-sales information with their suppliers and require them to replenish orders quickly based on actual sales. This shifts part of the risk arising from changing consumer tastes from retailers and onto suppliers. We argue that manufacturers must reshape planning methods, cost models, inventory practices, production operations, and sourcing strategies. We then show that suppliers that adopt comprehensive changes to manufacturing perform better along a number of dimensions compared to firms that have not. This article provides an excellent overview of HCTAR research contained in the book A Stitch in Time.
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"Diffusion of Modern Manufacturing Practices: Evidence from the Retail-Apparel Sector," by Margaret Y. Hwang and David Weil, June 1997, examines how the apparel industry is being affected by information technology-based changes in the manufacturing and retailing of products. Based on detailed business-unit level data, we show that observed heterogeneity in the adoption of modern manufacturing practices by apparel business units can be explained by changes in retail customer requirements for rapid replenishment of products. The incentive to adopt new practices is further increased by complementarities between manufacturing practices. Finally, sequential rather than simultaneous adoption of complementary practices occur as firms respond to changes in product demand.
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"The Information-Integrated Channel: A Study of the U.S. Apparel Industry in Transition," by Frederick H. Abernathy, John T. Dunlop, Janice H. Hammond, and David Weil, appeared in the Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics 1995. This paper contains a detailed summary of some of the preliminary findings of the HCTAR apparel industry survey as well as a description of economic and operations research theories that relate to our findings.
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"Executive Summary of Preliminary Findings, Harvard Center for Textile and Apparel Research Study of the U.S. Apparel Industry," by Frederick H. Abernathy, John T. Dunlop, Janice H. Hammond, and David Weil, April 1995, provides a brief summary of the preliminary findings of the HCTAR apparel industry survey that appear in the Brookings Paper.
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"Quick Response in Retail/Manufacturing Channels," by Janice H. Hammond, Chapter 8, Globalization, Technology and Competition: The Fusion of Computers and Telecommunications in the 1990s, edited by Stephen P. Bradley, Jerry A Hausman, and Richard L. Nolan, HBS Press, 1993. This chapter describes the impetus for the quick response movement, current trends in quick response implementation, and the technological underpinnings of quick response implementations and delineates key implementations steps.
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"Coordination as the Basis for Quick Response: A Case For Virtual Integration," by Janice H. Hammond, Harvard Business School Working Paper, 1992. This paper introduces and defines the general concept of channel coordination, and describes why coordination mechanisms among channel partners are needed to preclude "myopic optimization" by individual channel partners. Coordinating mechanisms allow a channel to move closer to optimal channel performance by eliminating redundant activities, reallocating tasks and activities to parties best able to perform them reallocating decision-making authority, altering the type of information gathered and how it is used, and in general increase the performance of a system by viewing the channel as a system to be optimized rather than a set of individual entities. The paper draws a distinction between "virtual integration"—using information and task coordination improve channel performance—and "vertical integration"—improving channel performance via ownership of key components of the channel. Examples from the textile and apparel industry are cited in the paper.
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OPTIMAL PRODUCTION & SOURCING STRATEGY
"Scheduling and Ordering Production Policies in a Limited Capacity Manufacturing System: The Multiple Replenishment Products Case," by Soundouss Bouhia and Frederick H. Abernathy, July 10, 2003. This paper formulates production policies to maximize the performance of an apparel manufacturing system that replenishes basic items characterized by a flat average demand. The simulation-based model compares a number of production strategies and chooses an ordering and scheduling policy that increases the overall performance of the supply chain. In doing so, different supplier configurations (i.e., different capacity resources and cost structures) are compared and the optimal strategy is selected to maximize the supplier's profit while maintaining a high order fill rate and minimizing the risk of carrying inventory.
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"On Production and Subcontracting Strategies for Manufacturers with Limited Capacity and Backlog-Dependent Demand," by Baris Tan and S.B.Gershwin, May, 2001. A system for placing value upon out-sourcing with specific contractors was developed by studying a manufacturing firm that relies upon a combination of in-house capacity and production by subcontractors to meet fluctuating demand.
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"On Using Capacity Options in Lean Retailing," by Baris Tan, February 2001. This paper investigates the strategy of temporary increases in production capacity through contingent contractual agreements with short-cycle manufacturers in order to manage the risks associated with demand uncertainty. It introduces the idea of "capacity options" as a way to structure production agreements.
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"Control Your Inventory in a World of Lean Retailing,"by Frederick H. Abernathy, John T. Dunlop, Janice H. Hammond, and David Weil, appeared in the Harvard Business Review, November/December 2000. Despite ever more demanding retailers and rampant product proliferation, manufacturers have stayed with dangerously indiscriminate production schedules and sourcing strategies. A new approach leaves less money on the table.
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"Who Holds the Bag?: The Impact of Information Technology and Workplace Practices on Inventory," Margaret Y. Hwang and David Weil appeared in the 50th Annual Proceedings of the Industrial Relations Research Association, (Madison, WI: IRRA, 1998.) This paper examines how the adoption of information technology and changes in workplace practices affect the level of inventories held by firms in the U.S. apparel industry. We hypothesize the total inventory of apparel manufacturers will decrease as a deeper set of related practices are adopted. Specifically, we evaluate how the adoption of four information technology and manufacturing practices affects inventory position. The study draws on a combined data set that links detailed, business unit level information regarding firm level practices collect by the authors with Department of Commerce micro-data from the Longitudinal Research Database.
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"Customer Demand and Scheduling for Clothing Manufacturers," by Gregory Diehl, Frederick H. Abernathy, and Janice H. Hammond, July 1998. This is a paper which analyzes the demand profiles for a clothing manufacturer/retailer and a clothing manufacturer. We also consider the scheduling problems of a clothing manufacturer. The scheduling problem is related to classical inventory problems but is viewed from a manufacturer’s perspective rather than a retailer’s perspective. We also discuss a number of real life complexities that highlight the need for a different approach from the classic problem.
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"Design and Scheduling of Apparel Manufacturing Systems with Both Slow and Quick Production Lines," by Janice H. Hammond, Z.-Bo Tang, and Frederick H. Abernathy, appeared in Proceedings IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, December, 1994. This paper proposes a model and solution procedure for a hybrid production system that combines a traditional large batch, long lead-time "bundle" production system with a fast, flexible, small lot "modular" production system in order to achieve both the productivity benefits of the bundle system and the speed and flexibility of the quick line. To implement an effective combination these two system types, the paper addresses the following questions: What percentage of overall production capacity should be allocated to the quick production line? What scheduling policy should be employed for the two lines? These two questions are posed so as to maximize the "system profitability" of the entire manufacturing-retailer system. Results from a test problem are provided.
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ACCURATE RESPONSE & FORECASTING
Accurate response is an approach that helps companies forecast demand and plan production in order to minimize the costs of stock-outs and markdowns. This approach is particularly suitable for companies selling products with high demand uncertainty and short product cycles.
"Making Supply Match Demand in an Uncertain World," by Marshall Fisher, Janice H. Hammond, Walter Obermeyer, and Ananth Raman, Harvard Business Review, May/June 1994. this article discusses the impetus for accurate response, including the growing product proliferation and shortening product life cycles that make products previously considered to be staple goods acquire many of the forecasting and production planning challenges typically associated with fashion items. The paper includes a case study describing the implementation and benefits of an accurate response program at skiwear manufacturer Sport Obermeyer, using results of the model to illustrate the impact on a firm’s profitability of increasing the amount of reactive capacity.
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"Accurate Response, the Key to Profiting from Quick Response," by Marshall Fisher, Janice H. Hammond, Walter Obermeyer, and Ananth Raman, Bobbin Magazine, February 1994. This paper describes the benefits of an accurate response program, outlines the logic behind the use of reactive capacity, and provides a simple heuristic that companies can use that provides some of the benefit of the more sophisticated accurate response algorithm. Concepts and results are illustrated with data and examples from skiwear manufacturer Sport Obermeyer.
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"Reducing the Cost of Demand Uncertainty Through Accurate Response to Early Sales," by Marshall Fisher and Ananth Raman, forthcoming, Operations Research, Special Issue on New Directions for Operations Management Research. This technical paper describes the mathematical underpinnings of an accurate response program.
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Case Study: Sport Obermeyer, by Janice H. Hammond and Ananth Raman, Harvard Business School case study, describes the implementation of an accurate response program at skiwear manufacturer Sport Obermeyer.
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GLOBAL STUDIES
The Future of the Apparel and Textile Industries: Prospects and Choices for Public and Private Actors by Fred Abernathy, Anthony Volpe, and David Weil, 2005. The expectation that Chinese apparel and textile exports will swamp the U.S. and EU retail markets now that international quotas on those products have been eliminated has fueled much of the discussion of the future of these industries. Although imports from China have surged since the elimination of quotas on January 1, 2005, this conventional wisdom masks important choices that remain for public and private policies over time. In particular, two factors will continue to have major effects on the location of apparel and textile production going forward. First, public policy choices will continue to influence sourcing location, in particular as they relate to tariffs and regional trade polices as well as policies affecting the linkages between countries. Second, the lean retailing model that now prevails requires apparel suppliers to replenish basic and fashion basic products on a weekly basis. As that retailing model became dominant in the 1990s, so too did the advantage of sourcing these apparel items closer to the U.S. market so that products could be manufactured and delivered more rapidly from a smaller finished goods inventory. Even though costs remain a driving factor, we show that proximity advantages for certain classes of products will continue in a post-quota world as retailers raise the bar ever higher on the responsiveness and flexibility required of their suppliers.
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Apparel Apocalypse? The Americas' Texitle Industries Won't Die When Quotas Do by Frederick Abernathy and David Weil, Novemeber 18, 2004. Washington Post Op-Ed piece. DOWNLOAD PDF-GS-OPED1
The Apparel and Textile Industries after 2005: Prospects and Choices by Fred Abernathy, Anthony Volpe, and David Weil, 2004. Fears that Chinese apparel and textile exports will swamp the US retail market now that international quotas on those products have been eliminated have fueled much of the discussion of the future of these industries. Although the end of quotas will alter global competition, this conventional wisdom regarding the complete dominance of China is overstated and masks important choices that remain for public and private policies. In particular, two factors will have major impacts on the location of apparel and textile production going forward. First, public policy choices will continue to affect sourcing location, in particular as they relate to tariffs and regional trade polices as well as policies affecting the linkages (e.g. infrastructure investment) between countries. Second, the lean retailing model that now prevails requires apparel suppliers to replenish products on a weekly basis. As that retailing model became dominant in the 1990s, so too did the advantage of sourcing certain apparel items closer to the U.S. market so that products could be manufactured and delivered more rapidly. This also explains how some segments of the U.S. apparel industry have survived even in the face of cheaper labor elsewhere in the world. Even though costs remain a driving factor, we show that proximity advantages for certain classes of products will continue in a post-quota world as retailers raise the bar ever higher on the responsiveness and flexibility required of their suppliers.
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The Influence of Quotas, Tariffs and Bilateral Trade agreement on Post 2005 Apparel Trade, by Claire Chiron, 2004. Textile and Clothing imports into the United States have doubled in volume between 1995 and 20031, coinciding with the progressive liberalization of the quota regime under the World Trade Organization Agreement on Textile and Clothing (ATC). The ATC organized the gradual abolition, over a 10-year period (1995-2005) of all volume quotas on Textile and Apparel products, in force since the Short Term Cotton Arrangement, which regulated the Textile and Apparel trade through product-specific, bilateral agreements. While the phased-in approach has allowed importing country to delay liberalization of highervalue products, 2005 will inexorably mark the end of all quotas on all products for WTO members. There remains, however, important limits to complete liberalization: status of non-WTO members representing as much as 7% of US imports in 20022, specific restraining measures with regards to China and protracted tariff preferences through regional trade agreements. In this sense, Textile and Apparel liberalization will remain very much an ongoing process after 2005.
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Globalization in the Apparel and Textile Industries: What is New and What is Not?, by Frederick H. Abernathy, John T. Dunlop, Janice H. Hammond, and David Weil, December 2002. It would be disingenuous to deem globalization of the textile and apparel industries a recent phenomenon. The movement of textile and apparel products across international boundaries predates recent decades or even the twentieth century. Indeed, international trade in apparel and textile goes back well before the periods described above and has been a favorite example of the gains from trade used by economists going back to David Ricardo. So what is all the fuss about the globalization of the textile and apparel industries? This paper argues that new forms of retail distribution and the continuing impact of product proliferation together lead to new forces in the sourcing of products destined for the U.S. market.
In particular, along with traditional factors like wages, exchange rates, tariffs, and for the moment quotas (phased out in 2005), these "new forces" lead to a shift of sourcing for some products to countries in closer proximity to large, affluent domestic markets like the U.S. The paper analyzes trade data at the country- and product-level to examine this view and finds evidence that much of the change in sourcing that occurred in the mid- to late 1990s can be traced back to the effects of the new forces.This has important implications of the impact of the end of quotas in 2005 on international trade flows in apparel and textiles.
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An Overview of the Turkish Textile and Apparel Industry, by Baris Tan, December 2000 (updated 12/02).This paper presents an overview of the Turkish textile and apparel industry by using statistics from 1999. Imports and exports, production capacity and utilization, production and demand, and industry structure in the Turkish textile and apparel industry are all analyzed in detail. In addition, there is a preliminary assessment of the competitiveness of the Turkish textile and apparel industry based on its cost structure, productivity, lead times, delivery performance and quality.
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A Closer Look at the New Filiere: The Establishment Surveys in Roanne and Cholet, by Bruno Courant and Elisabeth Parat, September 2000
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Changing Practices in the U.K. Apparel Supply Chain: Results of an Industry Survey, by Lynn Oxborrow, April 2000
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The Development of the China Apparel Industry, by Gu Qingliang, November 1999.
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Beyond Needles and Thread: Changing Supply Chains in the U.K., by Lynn Oxborrow, November 1999
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E-COMMERCE
E-Commerce in the Textile and Apparel Industries, by Jan Hammond and Kristin Kohler, prepared for "The E-Business Transformation: Sector Developments and Policy Implications" September 2000.
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HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Public Enforcement/Private Monitoring: Evaluating a New Approach to Regulating the Minimum Wage by David Weil, January 2004. This paper examines compliance with federal minimum wage laws in the U.S. apparel industry and analyzes the impact of new methods of intervention designed to improve regulatory performance. Drawing on data from a randomized survey of apparel contractors, the author evaluates the impact of agreements between manufacturers and the government used to monitor contractor behavior as a means of improving compliance outcomes. Several non-regulatory variables predicted by theory to be important influences--the level of works skills, for example, and product market factors related to the elasticity of labor demand--are indeed found to be correlated with compliance. Nontheless, stringent forms of contractor monitoring are associated with substantial reductions in violations of minimum wage standards. The results suggest that well-designed public/private monitoring efforts can lead to significant improvements in compliance with labor standards.
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Compliance with Minimum Wage Laws: Can Government Make a Difference? by David Weil, December 2002. This paper examines patterns of compliance and noncompliance with federal minimum wage laws in the U.S. apparel industry and analyzes the impact of new methods of intervention designed to improve regulatory performance. Drawing on contractor-level data from a randomized survey of apparel contractors, the paper assesses the major correlates of compliance with minimum wage provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act and evaluates the impact of agreements between manufacturers and the government used to monitor contractor behavior as a means of improving compliance outcomes. Conclusions? Non-compliance is significantly correlated with characteristics predicted by theory including employer size, skill content, and the elasticity of labor and product demand. Nonetheless, stringent forms of contractor monitoring are associated with significant reductions in the presence, incidence, and severity of violations of minimum wage standards.
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"Regulating Noncompliance to Labor Standards: New Tools for an Old Problem" Challenge, January -- February 2002, pp. 47-74. Regulating labor standards in the apparel industry has been a problem for more than a century. However, changes over the last decade in the relationships between retailers and apparel manufacturers have altered the product market forces governing the apparel industry. This paper explores how new regulatory approaches are attempting to take advantage of these changes in market forces to create greater pressure on multiple parties in the supply 'channel' to monitor and enforce domestic labor standards. The paper explores new data on the performance of traditional and new regulatory approaches given these changes. It then speculates on the implications of these findings to regulating labor standards internationally as well as the application of market pressure as a regulatory tool for other venues.
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"Diffusion and Performance of Modular Production in the U.S. Apparel Industry," by John T. Dunlop and David Weil, appeared in Industrial Relations, July 1996. This paper examined the determinants of the diffusion of team production systems (modular assembly) and the impact of these systems of firm performance relative to traditional assembly systems in the apparel industry. The paper draws on an extensive survey providing detailed information on a wide range of manufacturing practices and retail relationships in the U.S. apparel industry. We find that recent diffusion of modular practices is driven primarily by the product market. We also show that modular systems affect business unit performance (particularly operating profits) where they are combined with complementary investments in information systems linking apparel suppliers and retail customers.
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"Work Organization in the U.S. Apparel Industry: A Historic Perspective," by John T. Dunlop and David Weil, November 1993. This paper explores the principal determinants governing the diffusion of innovation human resource practices. It does so by analyzing the emergence of the present system of apparel assembly in the late 1930s, and the failure of wide-scale diffusion of the group assembly systems in the apparel industry in the 1980s, drawing on performance data from both time periods. The authors argue that diffusion of human resource practices deemed "innovative" within an industry arises primarily from the link between those practices and the competitive strategy position of firms adopting them in relation to those which do not. Thus, rather that focusing on characteristics of the innovative practices per se—as is common the "high performance work organization" literature—analyses of human resource diffusion must concentrate on the context of the product markets, technologic and work organization choices and their resulting impacts on the competitive position of the adopters.
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Case Study: Doré-Doré, by Janice H. Hammond, Harvard Business School case study. Describes the implementation of a cellular manufacturing system in a French knitwear company.
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AUTOMATIC MARKER MAKING
"Placement and Compaction of Non-convex Polygons for Clothing Manufacture," by Victor J. Milenkovic, Karen Daniels, and Zhenyu Li, appeared in Proceedings of the Fourth Canadian Conference on Computational Geometry, August 1992. This paper introduces our strategy for automated layout of pants and other types of markers. The marker-making task is partitioned into three parts: panel (large piece) placement, compaction, and trim (small piece) placement. We provide a common mathematical basis for these operations. Implemented algorithms for panel placement and compaction are presented plus future directions form trim placement.
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"Compaction and Separation Algorithms for Non-convex Polygons and Their Applications," by Victor J. Milenkovic and Zhenyu Li, appeared in the European Journal of Operations Research, August 1992. This paper focuses of compaction: methods for optimizing an existing layout of any type by planning a simultaneous non-overlapping motions of the pieces. We discuss the theoretical complexity of compaction and give an algorithm for translational compaction of marker pieces. This algorithm is extended to eliminate overlaps among pieces if any pair overlap. We show how overlap elimination plus compaction makes it possible to perform fully automatic marker making through substitution-based database-driven marker making. Starting with a high quality layout, this technique can generate a totally new layout by substituting pieces, eliminating overlaps, and compacting. Until we can reliably generate high quality markers from "scratch", database-driven marker making could generate good to high quality marker for industries with large databases of high quality markers. The software has been licensed to Microdynamics.
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For further information on automatic marker making applications and related technical papers, please visit http://www.cs.miami.edu/~vjm
PRODUCT IDENTFICATION AND STANDARDS
"Twenty-five Years Behind Bars"edited Alan L. Haberman, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001. The proceedings of a Smithsonian Institution-sponsored symposium mark the 25th anniversary of the introduction of the now-ubiquitous bar code. The book is a collection of papers that examine the adoption and influence of a technology that continues to change radically the workings of commerce, transportation, warehousing and retailing on a worldwide scale. Price: $25. Available from Harvard University Press.
"Revolution at the Checkout Counter: The Explosion of the Bar Code," by Stephen A. Brown. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997. Available from Harvard University Press.
HOME BUILDING SUPPLY CHAIN DISTRIBUTION STUDY
"Residential Supply Chain in Transition:Summary of Findings from Survey of Dealers," by the Harvard University Building Products Distribution Study Research Team: Frederick Abernathy, John T. Dunlop, David Weil, William Apgar, Kermit Baker, and Rachel Roth. February 2004. The past several years have seen dramatic changes in the distribution of residential building products, particularly as it relates to dealers serving homebuilders, remodeling contractors and others in the building trades (pro dealers). Whereas consolidation among retailers serving do-it-yourself (D-I-Y) homeowners and smaller remodeling contractors began two decades ago and has resulted in just a few major players today, consolidation among pro dealers is a more recent phenomenon, and is just recently gathering momentum and appears to be giving rise to changes in the distribution channel for residential building products. The goal of the Residential Supply Chain in Transition research is to understand the changes that are occurring and that are likely to occur over the next decade in the residential supply channel. This report summarizes our survey of building product dealers, which has produced the following initial conclusions: 1. The customer base of building product dealers has significantly changed in recent years. 2. With a changing customer base, managing products and inventories is an area of growing concern for dealers. 3. Given the increased inventory risk that dealers have had to assume, they are improving their inventory management capabilities. 4. Dealers have adopted distinctive strategies to deal with pressures from homebuilders and suppliers.
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"Consolidation in the Distribution of Residential Building Products," by Rachel Roth, December 2003. The United States Economic Census of Retail Trade has provided evidence of the increase in concentration in the distribution sector of the building materials and supplies industry from 1972 to 1997. Between these years, the share of sales by the top 50 firms in the category grew due to a tremendous increase in the concentration of do-it-yourself (D-I-Y) retailers in combination with a small drop in the number of professional distributors. Reasons for the ongoing consolidation trend include product proliferation (and the response of technology to this proliferation ), economies of scale, shortening of the distribution chain, a low-inflation environment, and a customer base concentration. Several of the above theories of consolidation are being examined in the Harvard Distribution Study, a collaborative effort between the Joint Center for Housing Studies and the Harvard Center for Textile and Apparel Research that seeks to understand the changes that are occurring in the residential supply chain. The first phase of the study looks at companies distributing building products while further phases will examine the industry from the perspectives of both builders and manufacturers.
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